Braille Literacy

Viktoriia Dudar
Professor Barbara Gleason
Adult Language and Literacy
11 May 2010

Braille Literacy

The invention of Braille, a writing system that allows blind or visually impaired individuals to read and write through touch, gave the opportunity to millions of people all over the world to become immersed in words and the world around them. Braille literacy is an essential attribute of independence and success that eliminates the barriers to an accomplished life. However, the struggle for access to education, employment, and equality for 10 million visually impaired and 1.3 million legally blind people in the United States is far from being won and continues until today. To better understand the significance of the Braille code, it is important to analyze the historical background of the 18th century France and origins of Braille, “the war of dots,” and the current issues of literacy access for blind individuals.

The philosophical ideas of the Age of Enlightenment that first started advocating the basic human rights for every individual established the foundation for educating blind or visually impaired people. In 1749, Denis Diderot, a prominent philosopher, published Letter on the Blind for the Use of Those Who See that expressed his belief that blind people are capable and worthy of education despite their lack of vision. He described a blind woman, Melanie de Salignac, who learned how to write and read by using cutout, curved in the wood and pinpricked letters (Rex et al. 17). His ideas were the part of the broader revolutionary argument, trying to prove that “every individual is entitled to opportunities to reach his or her own true potential” (Wittenstein 517). However, a few successful examples of wealthy and privileged people did not mean access of education for everybody. Only in 1784, Valentin Haüy, inspired by Diderot’s letter and after meeting with the blind baroness of Austria, established the first school for blind children, the Institute for Blind Youth, in Paris. In addition, he invented an embossed print reading system and a press for creating tactile books that gave the opportunity to the blind to become literate (Rex et al. 17). A few decades later, Haüy’s school became the place where young Louis Braille created his code, which is still used nowadays.

Louis Braille was born in 1809 in the family of a saddler in Coupvray, which is only twenty five miles away from Paris. He became blind when he was only three years old as a result of an accident while playing with his father’s tools. When Braille was 10 years old, his family sent him to the Institute for Blind Youth. He was distinguished as one of the most brilliant and gifted students: he excelled in his studies and played cello and piano. There he became acquainted with “night writing” or sonography that was invented by Charles Barbier, a former artillery captain in Napoleon’s Army, in order to allow solders to communicate at night. When Braille was only fifteen years old, he adapted and considerably simplified sonography that initially contained twelve dots and was very difficult to learn. His new code consisted of six raised dots that were arranged in a cell, three points high and two points wide in 63 different patterns, and it is used until today (Rex et al. 17). After becoming a teacher at the Institute for Blind Youth, Braille extended his code to include notations for mathematic and music and published the first book in Braille Method of Writing Words, Music, and Plain Songs by Means of Dots, for Use by the Blind and Arranged for Them in 1829. During his life, he continued to improve Braille alphabet and worked on the developing of Braille writing machine called a raphigraphe (needle-writer). Braille alphabet gradually replaced the old system of raised letters allowing blind students to read and to write much faster and more accurately. However, it was only two years after Braille’s death that the system became officially recognized in France. He died from tuberculosis in 1852 at the age of 43 and was buried in Coupvray. On the one hundred anniversary of Louise Braille death, his body was disinterred and placed in the Pantheon in Paris, the highest honor for a French citizen (Spungin, “Past” 5-7). Braille alphabet became widely spread in Europe and the United States of America and later, through the work of missionary teams, in Asian, African, and South American countries.

In the late 19th and early 20th century in the United States, Braille alphabet competed with other writing systems, such as Boston Line Type (an embossed print), New York Point (a horizontal array of four dots long and two dots high), Moon code (simplified raised Roman capital letters). This period was one of the most difficult in the history of literacy for the blind, referred to as the battle of the types or “the war of dots” (Rex et al. 18). Blind readers usually had to learn two or three codes in order to access different reading materials, which were printed in different codes depending on the school standards. For example, the Missouri School for the Blind used Braille, the Perkins School for the Blind preferred Boston Line Type, the New York Institute for the Blind used New York Point, and British books were printed in Moon code. Later the British and American Braille were added to the list (D’Andrea 586). Consequently, there was a great need for a uniform code as it would eliminate extra financial cost for duplication and increase accessibility of books for blind people.

“The war of dots” was over in 1918, when the American Commission on Uniform Type recognized Braille as superior to other writing systems and adopted Grade 1 and Grade 1-1/2 Braille codes (Rex et al. 18). The former consists of the twenty-six standard letters of the alphabet and punctuation, and the latter included forty-four contractions or shortcuts that increased the reading and writing speed. Children usually started from learning Grade 1 Braille until the third grade, and then they were taught Grade 1-1/2 Braille. Sometimes in high school, they moved to Grade 2 Braille, a British code that included 190 contractions. However, a great argument started and continues until today whether a contracted Braille should be introduced to small children or not, and if Grade 1 Braille should be taught at all (D’Andrea 587). The absence of the systematic approach for teaching Braille continues to be one of the problems that does not have a consensus and still needs to be resolved.
During the 1920s and 30s, a range of studies was conducted in order to determine if Grade 2 Braille was better than Grade 1-1/2 as it gained a rapid popularity in the United States. The results of the studies showed that Grade 2 Braille considerably increased the speed of reading and writing and also saved about 12 percent of space compared to Grade 1-1/2. Americans started ordering books from England as they understood the advantages of reading with greater speed. To facilitate the exchange of Braille materials between two countries, a joint committee representing England and the United States was created in order to reach some compromises. As the result of the joint conference held in London in July 1932, the Treaty of London agreement was signed. It entitled Grade 2 Braille (Standard English Braille) to become the medium for reading and writing for blind and visually impaired individuals in all English-speaking countries (Rex et al. 21). Although the Treaty of London allowed printing books in Grade 2 Braille, it was not until decades later that it was introduced to beginning readers.

In the 1940s, a new technology of using incubators for premature infants was implemented for the first time in hospitals. As the result of a lack of research on the influence of oxygen on infants and the misuse of incubators, many babies who were incubated became blind or developed severe vision impairments, such as retinopathy of prematurity or ROP (D’Andrea 590). These children entered school in the 1950s and 1960s, which created a great need for more research on Braille reading and writing instruction. As a result of different studies that were conducted during these decades, the first Braille reading series called Patterns was developed by Caton and Bradley. The series included a readiness level reader, a preprimer, a primer, and then first, second, and third level readers that taught contracted Braille in a systematic way. Furthermore, another important study was conducted by Mangold who created Developmental Program of Tactile Perception and Braille Letter Recognition that helped to decrease reading errors through a sequence of 29 lessons. The results of the study showed that about 90 percent of Braille readers benefited greatly from this program. Patterns series and Mangold’s program are widely used by teachers even today (D’Andrea 591).

The last decades of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century brought considerable changed into the Braille literacy field. Many scholars refer to this period as “Braille literacy crisis” because according to the National Federation for the Blind only about 10 percent of the 1.3 million legally blind people can read Braille (Weiss1). The number of different opinions is trying to explain the possible causes of Braille literacy decline. First of all, Johnson believes that the integration of visually impaired children into regular classrooms is not always beneficial (1). As a result of the Education of Handicapped Children Act in 1975, thousands of blind and visually impaired children joined public schools. Since then, the instruction in general education classroom is provided by itinerant teachers who are usually expected to teach a dozen or more students who are spread over large areas. Consequently, they cannot dedicate a sufficient time for each student, and children are often taught by the classroom teacher or paraeducator who are often not proficient in Braille (Johnson 1).

The lack of competent teachers leads to overemphasizing of teaching print to students with residual vision. Difficulty in seeing large print considerably decreases the reading speed; many students are getting tired fast, do not enjoy reading, and thus fail to establish positive life-long reading habits. This problem was addressed in a Braille Literacy Amendment, which was signed in 1994 by five national blindness organizations, promoting Braille as an equal option to print (Spungin, “Braille” 2). Furthermore, the increasing number of children with multiple disabilities, surviving because of medical advancements, is placed into the mainstream classrooms. These students are incapable of learning Braille or require special attention because the traditional teaching methods are not always successful (D’Andrea 593). As the result, the shortage of qualified teachers deepens the Braille literacy crisis as visually impaired students are underserved or even not served at all. However, a number of initiatives are undertaken in order to change the decline in Braille literacy. For example, the American Foundation for the Blind (AFB), the American printing House for the Blind (APH), and the National Federation of the Blind are trying to resolve this issue by developing different teaching programs, materials, and Braille tests to facilitate Braille instruction and insure teachers’ knowledge of the code (Spungin, “Braille” 2).

Another reason for Braille literacy decline is the rapid development of new technology that offers additional access to printed materials (Johnson 1). Different audio devices and synthetic speech systems allow easy access to information. However, Doug Brent, a professor of communication at the University of Calgary, and his wife, Diana Brent, a teacher of blind students, believe that technological inventions cannot substitute Braille. The writing of one of their students who does not know Braille, but uses computer software clearly demonstrates his inferiority to Braille proficient students. His writing is disorganized, “the beginnings and endings of sentences seem arbitrary, one thought emerging in the midst of another with a kind of breathless energy” (Aviv 4). On the other hand, many researchers agree that technology makes Braille “more viable, relevant, and accessible than ever before in history” (Gerven and Taylor 1). The most important technological creations that increase Braille access are Braille translation software, Braille embossers, notetakers, refreshable Braille displays, Braille-capable tactile graphic printers, and synthetic speech systems. Furthermore, the first cell phone and notetaker hybrid that offers a 20-cell Braille display, a Braille keyboard, and a speech synthesizer became available to the general public in 2003 (Gerven and Taylor 1). Therefore, the rapid development of communication technology and advances in Braille production help blind and visually impaired people to become independent and self-supporting individuals.

With technological advances the definition of Braille literacy is also changing. Blake describes literacy as not only the ability to use Braille, print, and computers, but also as the ability to use readers and recorded materials in order to gain access to information (1). Furthermore, the increasing number of researches supports this integrated view of literacy and believes that communication skills, such as speaking and listening must be integrated into the curriculum for students who are blind or visually impaired in order to teach them to access data that is not presented in Braille (Rex et al. 9). Communication skills are valuable in everyday life and are often referred as literacy. As a result of including the ability to communicate in the definition of literacy, it becomes difficult to differentiate between literacy and illiteracy.

In order to develop a deeper understanding of Braille literacy, Koenig describes emergent, basic, and functional literacy (Rex et al. 9). He defines the emergent literacy as an early interaction with written language that should be facilitated by teachers and parents of blind children. He emphasizes the importance of repeated and direct interactions with Braille materials form an early age. Letting children to explore tactual books, acting out stories after reading them, making “book bags” that contain story characters, and encouraging the use of a raised-line drawing kit for scribbling help them to construct the concept of Braille (Rex et al. 10). After starting school, children are expected to develop basic or academic literacy through learning how to read and write in Braille. Only professional high quality instruction can insure students’ attaining of an adequate level of basic literacy skills. Young children need at least two hours per day of Braille reading and writing instruction on a consistent and ongoing basis that in many cases is impossible because of the lack of Braille professionals (Rex et al. 11). Furthermore, another aspect of literacy that relates to more specific everyday tasks, namely functional literacy, should be developed to insure independence of blind individuals. It is characterized by a number of factors, such as (1) performing diverse literacy everyday skills at home, in the community, and at work; (2) communicating with self and others; (3) using appropriate tools for gaining access to print independently. Communication through writing with sighted people can be a challenge because Braille cannot serve as a medium. Thus, it is important for blind and visually impaired individuals to be able to use print as a supplement to Braille or different technological devices in order to maintain a dialogue. Therefore, Rex believes that the main task of educators is “to provide ample opportunities for persons who are blind to master the functional literacy task they need for living fully” (13).

Braille literacy plays an important role in people’s lives as it helps them to become fully functional and independent adults. The study conducted by Ryles in 1996 suggests that there is a strong correlation between the employment rates and Braille literacy. A group of people who was proficient in Braille experienced a much lower unemployment rate (33 %) than the group that did not learn Braille (58%). Besides, the Braille group had better reading habits and thus, higher education achievements. For example, thirteen Braille literate individuals obtained graduate degrees and two of them had doctoral degrees that greatly contrasted with only four graduate degrees attained by members of the other group. Ryles concludes that learning Braille helps children “to develop the positive lifelong habit of reading as adults, enhance their later employment opportunities, and thereby increase the possibility of financial independence” (14).

In conclusion, the evolution of Braille literacy demonstrates the multidimensional nature of this phenomenon. Throughout decades, blind and visually impaired people have being paving the road for their independence, equality, and full integration into society. However, the recent decline in Braille literacy and an extremely high rate of unemployment indicate that the goal has not been reached yet. Although the learning processes of blind and sighted individuals are essentially the same, educators are challenged to consider the unique needs of their blind or visually impaired students and to develop special approaches when teaching Braille. Thus, more research in this field is needed as Braille literacy is an important asset that enables independence and confidence in everyday life.

Works Cited
Aviv, Rachel. “Listening to Braille.” New York Times Magazine. New York Times Magazine, 3 Jan. 2010. Web. 21 March 2010.
Blake, Sarah J. “The Importance of Braille Literacy.” Blindness Growing Strong. Web. 21 March 2010.
D’Andrea, Frances Mary. “A History of Instructional Methods in Uncontracted and Contracted Braille.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 103.10 (2009): 585-594. Education Full Text. Web. 29 April 2010.
Gerven, Clara Van and Anne Taylor. “The Information Age Braille Technology Timeline.” The National Federation of the Blind Magazine for Parents and Teachers of Blind Children 28.1 (2009). Web. 29 April 2010.
Rex, Evelyn L., et al. Foundations of Braille Literacy. New York: American Foundation for the Blind Press, 1994. Print.
Ryles, Ruby. “The Impact of Braille Reading Skills on Employment, Income, Education and Reading Habits.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 90.3 (1996). Web. 21 March 2010.
Spungin, Susan Jay. “Braille and Beyond: Braille Literacy in a Larger Context.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 90.3 (1996). Web. 21 March 2010.
---. “Past and Present Remembrances of Louis Braille.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 103.1 (2009): 5-7. Education Full Text. Web. 29 April 2010.
Weiss, Ray. “Blind Still Rely on Braille: High-Tech Advances Can’t Entirely Replace System.” Daytona Beach News-Journal. Daytona Beach News-Journal, 27 Jan. 2010. Web. 21 March 2010.
Wittenstein, Stuart H. “Braille and Revolution, Diderot and Enlightenment, and the Pursuit of Happiness.” Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness 103.9 (2009): 516-518. Education Full Text. Web. 29 April 2010.